The End of the Nomadic Empires: Ji Yun and China's Conquest of Xinjiang

Professor Introduction

Y. B | Ph.D. in East Asian Languages and Literature

Home Institute：Yale University

Project Description

In 1759, Emperor Qianlong conquered the region of Central Asia, which he later renamed Xinjiang (literally "new territory"). The Manchu conquest of Xinjiang marked the end of an era: the nomadic era ended when the descendants of the Mongol Empire, who once occupied a large swathe of Eurasia, were finally defeated by the multiethnic Qing Empire.
Central Asia's vast expanse is mostly Gobi desert, with hot summers, severe winters, and little precipitation throughout the year. Previous frontier poems described the region as "outside the pass," geographically, economically, and culturally distinct from mainland China. Before the massive Muslim rebellion of the 1820s, Xinjiang was a place of exile, where hundreds of officials who had failed in their duties were exiled. While in Xinjiang, many exiled officials created poetry and literature based on the newly conquered region, covering landscapes, local customs, and more. How did these exiled poets transform a region that previous poets had tried so hard to separate from China into an integral part of the Qing Empire geographically, administratively, and culturally? And in the process, how did they transform it into a place that was meaningful to them as exiles, literati, and individuals?
This project uses the prose and poetry of Ji Yun (1724-1805), an important official and intellectual in the mid-Qing Dynasty, as the research object, to explore the end of the Dzungar Empire and the inclusion of Xinjiang in the framework of the Qing Empire. Ji Yun stood at the crossroads of plains and grasslands, the Central Plains and the new frontier, Confucian tradition, and cultural others, and was at an important juncture where imperial history, local history, and personal history blended. Studying his literary works will help us understand the key moment when Xinjiang was first included in the Chinese cultural framework, and let us look at Chinese frontier poetry and exile literature in a new light.

Project Keywords

Project Outline

Part 1: Introduction to the Qing Conquest of Xinjiang
• Overview of the Qing Dynasty's conquest of Xinjiang in 1759.
• Historical context of the Dzungar Khanate and its significance.
• Introduction to Ji Yun and his role in the Qing administration.

Part 2: Theoretical Frameworks
• Exploration of key theories related to empire, conquest, and cultural integration.
• Examination of exile literature and frontier poetry.
• Discussion on the role of literature in shaping historical narratives.

Part 3:  Literature Review
• In-depth reading and analysis of existing literature on the Qing conquest of Xinjiang and Ji Yun's works.
• Identification of major viewpoints and debates in current research.
• Discussion on research gaps and the significance of this study.

Part 4:  Research Methods
• Introduction to qualitative research methods used in literary and historical studies.
• Techniques for textual analysis, archival research, and historical contextualization.
• Practical exercises to develop research skills.

Part 5:  Historical Context of the Dzungar Khanate and Xinjiang
• Exploration of the historical development of the Dzungar Khanate.
• Examination of the geographical, economic, and cultural characteristics of Xinjiang.
• Discussion on the significance of the Qing conquest for the region and the empire.

Part 6: Ji Yun's Life and Works
• Detailed analysis of Ji Yun's biography and his role in the Qing administration.
• Examination of his poetry and prose, focusing on themes related to Xinjiang.
• Discussion on his literary style and contributions to Chinese literature.

Part 7: Exile Literature and Frontier Poetry
• Exploration of the genre of exile literature and its significance in Chinese literary history.
• Examination of frontier poetry and its themes.
• Discussion on how exiled officials used literature to redefine Xinjiang.

Part 8: Cultural Integration of Xinjiang
• Analysis of how Ji Yun and other exiled officials portrayed Xinjiang in their works.
• Examination of the process of cultural integration and the creation of a new cultural identity for Xinjiang.
• Discussion on the impact of literature on the perception of Xinjiang as part of the Qing Empire.

Part 9:  Case Studies of Ji Yun's Works
• In-depth analysis of specific poems and essays by Ji Yun related to Xinjiang.
• Examination of the historical context, themes, and literary techniques used.
• Discussion on the significance of these works for understanding the Qing conquest of Xinjiang.

Part 10:  Comparative Analysis of Exile Literature
• Comparative analysis of Ji Yun's works with other exile literature from different historical periods.
• Identification of similarities and differences in themes and literary techniques.
• Discussion on the broader implications of exile literature for understanding cultural integration.

Part 11:  Empirical Results and Discussion
• Presentation and interpretation of research findings.
• Discussion of the significance and impact of findings.
• Identification of research limitations and suggestions for improvement.

Part 12: Ethical and Practical Implications
• Exploration of ethical considerations in literary and historical research.
• Discussion on the practical implications of research findings for policy and practice.
• Practical suggestions for integrating literary perspectives into historical studies.

Part 13: Future Research Directions
• Discussion of current trends and challenges in the study of exile literature and cultural integration.
• Identification of open problems and future research directions.
• Encouragement for student-led research projects.

Part 14: Conclusion and Summary
• Summary of the main findings and conclusions.
• Discussion of contributions to literature and historical studies.
• Recommendations for future research and practice.

Part 15: Research Paper and Presentation
• Guidance on writing a well-structured research paper.
• Tips for effective academic writing.
• Instructions on preparing and delivering an engaging oral presentation.

Suitable for

High School Students:  
• Interested in history, literature, and cultural studies, preparing for advanced studies or competitions.
• Basic knowledge of Chinese history and literary analysis.

University Students:
• Majoring in literature, history, or related fields, seeking to deepen understanding and engage in research.
• Familiar with basic theories of literary criticism and historical analysis.

Researchers and Educators:
• In-depth knowledge of Chinese history and literature.
• Looking to integrate current research trends into their teaching and academic work.